HISTORY OF EGYPT

King Kliafre protected by the falcon god Horns

The Old Kingdom (3100-2180 BC)

The power base of the Old Kingdom was estab lished at Memphis, the first capita] of a united Egypt. This was strategically located where Upper Egypt meets Lower Egypt at the apex of the Delta close to modern Cairo. Whereas the earliest kings chose Abydos as their funeral site to reflect their southern origins, later rulers preferred to be buried close to their new capital in its necropolis, Saqqara. The site of Egypt's earliest pyramid (c.2650 BC), Saqqara is also home to many stone maslaba (bench-shaped) tombs built for members of the royal court and beautifully decorated. The king was seen as the living incarnation of the god Horns and his court sought to be buried close to his divine power.

King Narmer's successors managed to suppress any outside threat to Egypt's stability whilst organizing the country into 42 provinces or nomes. These were administered by means if a highly efficient bureaucracy of

officials. The great wealth created through a carefully organized system of taxation - based on the collection and redistribution of Egypt's abundant grain supplies - was also used to fund ambitious building schemes. This culminated in the massive pyramid complexes of the Old Kingdom god-kings such as Djoser, Sneferu, Khufu and Khafre. The organization required for such huge projects helped to unify the nation, while the vast numbers of skilled craftsmen involved meant that art and technology developed at a rapid pace.

Of all the pyramid-building Pharaohs, Sneferu was the greatest, building three such structures, including the first true pyramid at Dahshur. It was only with techniques perfected by Sneferu that his son Khufu was able to construct the largest of all Egypt's pyramids at Giza in 2589 BC.

Eventually centuries of pyramid-building, together with a series of poor harvests, severely depleted the economy. This led to a decline in royal power, which was reflected in the small size of the later pyramids built at Abusir and Saqqara. The incredibly long reign of Pepi II (2278-2184 BC), only added to the problem and with the pharaoh seen as a feeble old man, royal authority was further undermined. After an incredible

1 lie Pyramids it GfrJ magnificent symbols of the divine power of thi. eirh Lg\ptiii kuig>

94 years on the throne Pepi II was succeeded by Egypt's first female pharaoh Nitocris, but despite being remembered as "the bravest and most beautiful" of her time, it was too kite to reverse the decline in royal fortunes.

First Intermediate Period, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period (2180-1550 BC)

As royal power declined, officials began to relocate to their home provinces. No longer reliant on the king, they created their own small kingdoms maintained with private armies. As the country gradually fragmented, central authority finally broke down into anarchy and the First Intermediate Period began c.2180 BC.

The lack of overall authority is clearly expressed in provincial and rather "idiosyncratic^{7' art styles typical of local trends. The breakdown of
social order is also reflected in the literature — "All is ruin...men kill their
brothers...blood is everywhere".}

The remnants of royal power relocated to Herakleopolis, at the entrance to the Fayoum Oasis, and attempted to rule through the forging of alliances with the southern regions. However, any temporary unity was shattered when Thebes formed an independent monarchy. Civil war and fierce fighting between neighbouring tribes tore the whole country apart.

| After a long and bitter struggl 1 the powerful Theban warlor ; Montuhotep II conquered th i.fl north to reunite the countr ■$ under the 11th Dynasty. Hi reign took Egypt from th< chaos of the First Iniermediat< Period into the stability of thi Middle Kingdom (c.2O55 BC) Thebes now grew into a map. metropolis, home to I skilled craftsmen who created new art styles a a rate not seen since die Age of the Pyramids. The old trade routes anc mines were reopenec and expansionist policies a,Theban prevailed. Although the utii Dynasty office of pharaoh would never again reach the absolute divinity of earlier times, the Theban monarchy restored royal power as growth in revenue led to a resumption of building projects. The greatest new structure was Montu-hotep's imposing funerary complex built at Deir al-Bahri which, 500 years later, would serve as the prototype for Hat.shepsut's temple.

Model of the private army of the of Asynt {c.2000 HC)